two of the most important questions that we, as homo sapiens, can ask about
ourselves.
Levels of Policy
Reasoning with policy pertains at three levels:
(1)
The policy maker seeks a specific outcome.
(2)
The policy maker seeks a generic outcome.
(3)
The policy maker seeks an overall outcome.
When an actor makes policy they are not necessarily confined to one level
because they can often move between them. It may also be possible to
combine elements of two or three levels.
Level 1: Specific Outcome
In Level 1 the actor is absolutely fixed on an outcome. In the pure and simple
case, they want something that is very specific. So, for example, Sally does
not just want a motor vehicle. Sally wants a motor vehicle of a specific type,
brand and age because Sally wants a red 1980 Buick sedan that has been
advertised, with a photograph, in the newspaper for a price of $7,500.
Where the outcome is inviolably fixed, a rational actor has to determine the
best way of attaining the outcome. If the price of the item is variable, this will
include shopping around for the best price. In Sally’s case, where the price is
fixed, it entails working out the best way to raise the $7,500 purchase price.
Level 2: Generic Outcome
In Level 2 the actor desires a generic outcome. For example, if they are an
individual they may want a means of transport as distinct from specifically
yearning for a 1980 Buick sedan. If the actor is a government they may want
an effective and efficient transport system
for a city or even for the whole
nation. This may rely on one sole or major means of transport, for example,
motor vehicle. Or, as is more likely, the government can utilise a mixture of
several means of transport – road (buses, taxis, motor vehicles), paths (cycles,
horses, pedestrians), rail (trains, trams, light rail), water (water taxis, small
craft, ferries, barges) or air (aeroplanes, helicopters, dirigibles, cable cars).
Making the point broadly, there are likely to be several combinations of
methods that will provide a decent transport system. Each of the decent
methods, while being acceptable, will produce benefits and costs of different
degrees and different kinds. Of course the most obvious direct benefit
consists of the number of people per day
that the system can move and the
speed and comfort with which this happens, but there may also be other
benefits. There are also indirect benefits. Cycling and walking produce health
benefits in terms of fitness and stress release. Some types of transport such as
rail and tram can add colour and life to a city. Some types of transport can
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